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Common Name

If a native plant of North America had any resemblance to one in Europe, the early colonists often applied the European common name to the New World plant even though the two may have been completely unrelated botanically. Depending upon the country or area of origin of the colonists, one particular plant might have several common names in different parts of this country. Or a given plant might have two or more common names in a single area because of different aspects of its appearance or use: thus the attraction of the colorful flowers of Asclepias tuberosa for butterflies accounts for the common name "Butterfly Weed," while an old medicinal use accounts for the common name "Pleurisy-Root." On the other hand, a single name might be applied to a number of different plants: the common name "Buttercup," for example, has been given to plants belonging to several of the yellow-flowered species of Ranunculus (in the family Ranunculaceae) and also to several species of the completely unrelated genus Narcissus (in the family Amaryllidaceae). Common names are sometimes easier to remember than the scientific name but they are certainly not exact! Furthermore, many common names are the same as the generic name or the first part of the scientific name, such as Rhododendron, Iris, Trillium, Magnolia, Sassafras, and Oxalis, and no one ever thinks of these names as being too hard to learn.

Scientific Name

The scientific name of a plant consists of two Latin or latinized words, a genus or generic name followed by a species name or specific epithet. By international agreement on the rules governing the formation of scientific names of plants, no two kinds may have the same name; thus every kind of plant has a different combination of generic name and specific epithet. Although a specific epithet may be repeated from one genus to the next (e.g., Magnolia virginiana for Sweet Bay and Fragaria virginiana for the Wild Strawberry), the generic names are different and indicate that the plants are different—in this case they even belong to different plant families, the Magnolia family (Magnoliaceae) and the Rose family (Rosaceae) respectively.

In cases where one plant has been given different scientific names by different botanists, the variance can be explained in one of two ways. Since 1930 considerable agreement has been reached, on an international level, concerning the rules for naming plants. Although aimed at ultimate stability, the new international rules have necessitated many changes in names that were used by botanists in this country for the 200 years before 1930—when many of our native plants were first discovered and named. Those earlier names that have been replaced are now officially invalid. Another situation, involving botanical opinion rather than rules, often occurs if a species is quite variable or is poorly known. Under such conditions, different acceptable botanical interpretations of the presumed relationships result in two concepts and thus two names. Further taxonomic research might shed more light on the patterns of plant variation and relationship and ultimately resolve the problem. Even so, botanical names are far more uniform and stable, the world over, than common names, and therefore they are given here, as are the scientific family names, to aid those who might wish to search further for information on a particular plant species of special interest.

The scientific name is followed by the name of the botanist who first described and classified the plant. This latter item may be either a name or an abbreviation and may consist of one or two names, the first of which is then in parentheses. This indicates that a second botanist brought about some change in the status of the botanical name after it was first applied by the original author, whose name then appears in the parentheses. These author, or authority, names are important to botanists as bibliographic references. For example, "Walter" after a plant name indicates that the plant was named by Thomas Walter, whose classic Flora Caroliniana was published in 1788. In a similar way, "Linnaeus" or "L." after a plant name indicates that the plant was named by the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus, who first published many plant names and descriptions in his Species Plantarum in 1753. The large number of our plants first described by Linnaeus (1707-78), William Bartram (1739-1823) of Pennsylvania, Thomas Walter (1740-89) of South Carolina, and the French botanist-explorer André Michaux (1746-1802) reflects the extensive early botanical exploration of eastern North America in general and of the Carolinas in particular.

Native vs. Introduced

In most cases the botanical literature is complete enough to show which plants now growing in our area without cultivation are truly native and which have been introduced from other areas, chiefly Europe. This information is given, in either direct or indirect form, for each species. It is often coupled with information on the life span of the plant: whether it is annual and lives only one year or one season, biennial and lives for two years (usually blooming the second year, when it then sets seeds and dies), or perennial and lives for three or more years. Recent emphasis has been paid to the widespread destructive effect of exotic invasives, those introduced nonnative species, often perennials, that aggressively overtake natural habitats and displace native plants. Invasive plants are identified in the text.

Scale or Plant Size

In each entry, reference is made to the size of the entire plant, or to some specific part, in order to give an idea of the scale of the picture and to aid in identification of the plant. These measurements are helpful, and sometimes critical, in identification because similar and closely related species may differ only in some aspect of size. As is now usual in botanical references, and indeed in scientific fields worldwide, all measurements are given in metric units. This decimal-based international system measures from 1//1000 of a meter (a millimeter) to 1//100 of a meter (a centimeter) to 1//10 of a meter (a decimeter) to a meter itself and allows for much greater flexibility and accuracy than is possible in the English system. However, to help picture the actual size and to assist with the conversion from English to metric, a decimeter rule, marked in millimeters, is provided at the front and back of the book. To make the switch to metric, there are four ready references to keep in mind: a millimeter (mm) is approximately the thickness of a penny; 2.5 centimeters (cm), or 25 mm, are approximately 1 inch; a decimeter (dm), or 10 cm, is approximately 4 inches; a meter (m), or 10 dm, is just a bit more than 3 feet. The sources for size information for each species are the Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas and the Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada (see References).

General Comments

We include brief comments on matters of particular interest, as appropriate for the plants illustrated. These may touch on the medicinal or other uses made of the species, horticultural information, and interesting biological facts such as what pollinates the flowers or distributes the seed. Comments are also made regarding other closely related, and often similar, species found in North Carolina.

Frequency

Information on frequency (common, frequent, rare), though subjective and difficult to apply in many particular cases, is nonetheless included as a relative guide. This knowledge is of particular importance in respect to our rare native plants that are in danger of becoming extinct. As relevant, plant status (whether it is edangered, etc.) is also indicated by a code in the last line of the entry (see below).

Habitat

Usually each of our native wild flowers grows only in the particular habitat or range of habitats to which it is adapted. In order to help you know where to look for certain plants and to aid in the identification of others that you may find unexpectedly, the habitat is given for each species treated, as listed in the Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas.

Range in North Carolina

Varying environmental conditions in North Carolina's three geographic provinces—mountains, piedmont, and coastal plain (see Figure 1)—also influence plant distribution. As shown in Table 2, some species are limited to one or two of these provinces, while others may be found throughout the state. For this reason, knowledge of a plant's usual range may aid in the discovery and identification of some of the wild flowers treated here. If an entry reads "chiefly mountains," it means that most of the known localities for this species in our state are in the mountains but that a few are also known from the piedmont; "chiefly coastal plain and piedmont" would indicate primary distribution in these provinces but with a few localities in the mountains; "scattered throughout" means just that—specimens are found here and there, in the appropriate habitat, in each of the three provinces.

General Range in North America

To illustrate the diversity of the regions of origin of our plants and to make this book more useful to those in areas adjacent to North Carolina, some indication is given of the general range of each species considered. These ranges are given as specifically as possible but are sometimes generalized for economy of words. For example, "ranging throughout the United States" does not necessarily mean that the species occurs in every state, "eastern and central United States" generally means the eastern half of the United States, and "eastern North America" means the species extends at least into southern Canada.

Months in Bloom

The time at which each plant is normally in bloom in North Carolina is listed as a range of months. "May-June" would indicate that the plant blooms in our area during part or all of May and June. Of course, for plants of a species found throughout the state, those in the mountains will usually bloom later than those at lower elevations.

Index Number

For those who might desire more specialized or detailed information on a plant or its relatives, the set of three numbers in parentheses below the months in bloom is provided as an index to each species in the Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas (see References). For example, the index number of Black Locust, 98-32-1, refers to the Manual's family number 98 (Fabaceae), genus 32 (Robinia) within this family, and species number 1 (Robinia pseudoacacia) of this genus. The sequence of the plants illustrated in this book thus follows the botanical sequence, based on general relationships, that is found in the Manual.

The information on distribution in North Carolina, blooming dates, and habitats is taken primarily from the Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas, supplemented by nearly a century of combined field observations on the part of the authors. General ranges are derived from both the U.S. Department of Agriculture "Plants Database" (plants.usda.gov) and the Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada (see References).

Because there have been changes in the taxonomy of several species since the Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas was published, we have used the new scientific name in the treatments of those species but maintain the old index number. A list of all name changes appears in Appendix 3. Additionally, for those plants that have undergone a name change, the now-superseded name appears in brackets after the current name at the beginning of the entry.

Key Character Summary Code

On the next-to-the-last line of each entry, we have included a morphological code that summarizes several characters of the plant according to the pictorial key located at the front and back of the book. The first three code elements are important general plant characters: habit, petal number (includes petal-like sepals), and leaf arrangement. The second grouping concerns specific important leaf characters: type, shape, and margins. The final three code elements refer to information on flower characters: arrangement, form, and color. The values for each of these characters has necessarily been simplified for ease in categorization, but the code can be useful when trying to determine the identity of a new or unknown wild flower. For detailed examples of how the code works, see Table 3.

Cultivation, Medicinal, Poisonous, and Plant Status Codes

The last line of each entry provides symbols and codes relaying information about a plant's soil and water requirements and indicating, as relevant, if it is available in the trade, if it has medicinal uses, if it's poisonous, and if (as well as to what degree) it is rare. An explanation of the symbols and codes follows.

Light Requirements

[symbol] full sun
[symbol] full shade
[symbol] partial shade and sun or filtered sun all day

Soil Moisture

A aquatic
W habitat wet most of the year
M moist, soil should not dry out
N average, or variable soil moisture
D dry soils

Cultivation

[symbol] This symbol is used when there is clear evidence of general availability of the species in the trade—either seeds or nursery-grown plants, or both. (Note: When you buy plants, be sure they are indeed nursery-propagated and -grown and not wild "gathered." The former usually live and thrive; the latter usually don't!)

Medicinal Use

[symbol] This symbol is shown when there is a record of medicinal use for the plant in either A Field Guide to Medicinal Plants and Herbs of Eastern and Central North America by Steven Foster and James A. Duke or Native American Ethnobotany by Daniel E. Moerman (see References).

Poisonous Plants

[symbol] poisonous when ingested
[symbol] poisonous when ingested but either of low toxicity or requires eating large quantities to achieve toxicity.
[symbol] toxicity is external, causing a skin reaction

Information on plant toxicity is derived from the online database Poisonous Plants of North Carolina (see References).

Plant Status

[symbol] This symbol, indicating "Do Not Dig!," appears at the end of the general comments and range indications, before the bloom months, for plants that should never be transplanted from the wild because they won't survive or because they are very rare.

E endangered: species in jeopardy
T threatened: species likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future
SC endangered and threatened: species listed as "of special concern," which may be propagated and sold under permit from the North Carolina Department of Agriculture
SR very rare in North Carolina—may be more common elsewhere in its range
R rare in North Carolina based on the authors' field experience—either located in only a few locations or generally uncommon throughout its range in the state, but without state or federal status
P parasitic
M mutualistic relationship with fungal partners (mycorrhizae)
S saprophytic

Following all of the entries for specific plants are three appendixes. The first is a horticultural chart for all native wild flowers of North Carolina. It presents much of the same information that can be found in specific entries (bloom time, soil requirements, etc.) but in an abbreviated, easy-to-consult form and with the plants listed in alphabetical order (by scientific name). Appendix 1 also indicates the references that are the source of information on medicinal uses and propagation found in individual plant entries.

Appendix 2 provides a list of North Carolina wild flowers that are classified as endangered or threatened by state and/or federal agencies. Appendix 3 list nomenclatural changes affecting the state's wild flowers since publication of the first edition of this book.

References

Bell, C. Ritchie. 1967. Plant Variation and Classification. 135 pp. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth.

Dirr, Michael A., and Charles W. Heuser Jr. 1987. The Reference Manual of Woody Plant Propagation: From Seed to Tissue Culture. 239 pp. Athens, Ga.: Varsity Press.

Duke, James A. 1997. The Green Pharmacy. 508 pp. Emmaus, Pa.: Rodale Press.

Flora North America Online: Flora of North America Editorial Committee, eds. 1993- . Flora of North America North of Mexico. 7 vols. to date. New York: Oxford University Press.

Foster, Steven, and James A. Duke. 2000. A Field Guide to Medicinal Plants and Herbs of Eastern and Central North America. 2nd edition. 411 pp. Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin.

Gleason, Henry A., and Arthur Cronquist. 1963. Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada. 810 pp. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand.

Moerman, Daniel E. 1988. Native American Ethnobotany. 927 pp. Portland, Ore.: Timber Press.

North Carolina Natural Heritage Database (www.ncsparks.net/nhp/search.html). The North Carolina Natural Heritage Program is a part of the Office of Conservation and Community Affairs within the North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources.

Phillips, Harry R. 1985. Growing and Propagating Wild Flowers. 331 pp. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. 1968. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. lxi, 1183 pp. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

Russell, Alice B., James W. Hardin, Larry Grand, and Angela Fraser. Poisonous Plants of North Carolina. Online database (www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/consumer/poison/poison.htm). Departments of Horticultural Science, Botany, Plant Pathology, and Family and Consumer Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh. Programming, Miguel A. Buendia; Graphics, Brad Capel.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. The Plants Database, Version 3.5 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, La.

Flower Structure and Function

Not all plants have flowers. The lower or more primitive types—algae, fungi, mosses, and ferns—do not produce flowers or seeds in their reproductive process but produce microscopic spores that produce (or become!) gametes. Pines and their relatives are wind pollinated and do form seeds but still have no structure that can be correctly called a flower. Only the more highly evolved plants—known botanically as the Angiosperms—have the specialized, complex, and often beautiful structures we call flowers associated with the sexual reproductive process that produces seeds.

A typical flower (Figure 2) is made up of four sets of parts, arranged in whorls or in concentric rings. Each part of the flower is specialized for a particular function. The outermost series of parts is the calyx, which is made up of the sepals. The calyx, in which the individual sepals may be entirely separate or fused to varying degrees, protects the flower in bud, and is usually green but, as in many lilies, may be as brightly colored as a petal and thus function in the attraction of the insect (or other animal pollinators). The second whorl or series of parts is the corolla, which is made up of the petals, which also may be either fused, as in the Morning Glory and Rhododendron, or separate, as in the Lily and Cactus. The corolla is usually the most colorful part of the flower, the color, shape, and scent serving to attract the insects or birds often necessary for pollination, which is the transfer of pollen from the anthers to the stigma. The third whorl is composed of the stamens, each of which bears a pollen sac, or anther, at the end of a slender filament. The pollen produces the cells that function as the male gametes. At the center of a typical flower is the pistil, or female reproductive portion, made up of three parts: the pollen-receptive area, the stigma; a region of connective tissue, the style; and the ovule producing portion, the ovary or ovulary. The ovules, after fertilization, will develop into seeds, and the ovulary will become the fruit.

Not all flowers, however, have all of these parts. Some, for example, have no petals. In these cases the flowers are frequently small, insignificant, and not very pretty. Such flowers would offer little attraction to pollinating insects. Thus it is not surprising to find that the pollen of these apetalous flowers is spread by the wind. Grasses, many trees (such as the oaks and willows), and even some plants in the Aster family (such as the familiar Ragweed) lack showy petals and are wind pollinated. On the other hand, some plants having flowers without petals or with insignificant ones are nonetheless insect pollinated. When this is true, other structures have usually been modified through change in color and shape to function as "petals." Such is the case with Clematis, in which the sepals are colorful and petal-like, and with Dogwood, in which we find that the "flower" is actually made up of a cluster of small inconspicuous flowers surrounded by four showy white modified leaves or bracts. Another type of "flower" is found in such plants as Skunk Cabbage and Jack-in-the-Pulpit. In the case of these two, many small flowers are borne on a fleshy stalk, called the spadix, surrounded by a colorful envelope of tissue called the spathe. The color, shape, and odor of the spathe attract the pollinators.

A flower with both stamens and pistils, as in Figure 2, is said to be perfect. However, the flowers of some plants are found to be unisexual; that is, they may be either staminate, with stamens only, or pistillate, with pistils only. If both male and female, or staminate and pistillate, flowers are found on a single plant, it is said to be monoecious. If the male flowers are produced on one plant and the female flowers on another, as in the case of Holly, the plants are said to be dioecious. Most of the wind-pollinated plants mentioned earlier can be either monoecious or dioecious and produce many more male than female flowers. The long clusters of male flowers, called catkins, are conspicuous on our alders, oaks, and hickories in early spring; the relatively few, small female flowers in the leaf or bud axils are rarely noticed.

Flowers are modified through adaptive changes in the shape, size, and relationship of parts as well as through the loss of parts. Flowers in the Lily family, Liliaceae (Figure 3a); the Rose family, Rosaceae (Figure 3b); and the Potato family, Solanaceae (Figure 3c) are actinomorphic. That is, they are quite regular or radially symmetrical. In contrast, the flowers in the Orchid family, Orchidaceae (Figure 4a); the Legume family, Fabaceae (Figure 4b); and the Mint family, Lamiaceae (Figure 4c) typically offer examples of zygomorphic flowers, or flowers that have a bilateral (often two lipped) symmetry.

Inflorescence is used as a general term to indicate the specific flower-bearing portion of the plant and usually refers to the particular type of arrangement of the flowers on the stems and branches (Figure 5). The "flower" of the Jack-in-the-Pulpit, for example, is really a group of flowers in a specialized arrangement or inflorescence, and in the Aster family we also find that many "flowers," such as the common Daisy and the Black-eyed Susan, are not single flowers at all but are groups of flowers in a compact inflorescence or head. Furthermore, such heads often contain both actinomorphic and zygomorphic flowers. Each "petal" of a daisy is actually a separate flower (called a ray flower), with one large white petal. The center of the daisy is made up of many regular, small, yellow flowers (called disc flowers) with uniform petals (Fig. 6).

Flowering plants are divided into two major groups on the basis of minute internal differences, but members of each group usually can be recognized on the basis of flower structure, or flower structure in association with leaf structure. Monocotyledons (plants with only a single embryonic leaf, such as the lilies, orchids, and grasses) generally have flower parts in threes and leaf veins that are more or less parallel; dicotyledons (plants with two embryonic or seed leaves, such as the mustards, asters, and mints) generally have flower parts in fours or fives or in multiples of four or five and leaf veins that are reticulate, or netlike, and not parallel. In a similar way, different combinations of structural patterns enable us, with practice and careful application, to distinguish individual plants and to assign them to their proper families. The variations in structure between unrelated plants and the similarities within groups are used by botanists in both identification and classification.

Plants of a given area can be identified by the use of a "key" or orderly list of contrasting characters by means of which the plant under consideration may be assigned to smaller and smaller groups until it is ultimately identified. However, a "key" for only 500 of our nearly 3,000 flowering plants would be inaccurate and misleading. For that reason, in addition to the deliberate avoidance of a technical approach in this presentation, such a device has been omitted. Complete keys for the identification of all of our flowering plants can be found in the Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas, and, as noted above, each species illustrated in this book is coordinated by reference number to the more detailed material in the Manual.

Glossary